In the tourism process, repeatedly encountered someone Beijing Olympic Games opening ceremony performances amazed. I always feel very proud in this world who does not want to hear a good word. Chinese people for this grand opening under the foot work, as far as possible to add more Chinese elements. In the lingering Chinese history best of the best, of course, can not do without the four great inventions, performances and even typography alone accounted for one.
Generating process "four great inventions" of the term is more complex, probably the following context. Since the 16th century, Kaerdanuo, bacon, Marx and others have pointed out gunpowder, the compass, printing three kinds of invention and social progress in Europe played an important role in promoting, but no description of the origins of three inventions, more like by default they are from the European mainland. British Missionaries in China Edkins (1823-1905) was a scholar, when comparing the Chinese and the Japanese in his book, the first paper, printing, gunpowder, the compass parallel, meaning they come from China, but has not yet formed four great inventions, said. American scholar Carter's 1925 book "China and the invention of printing it to the West," published in order theory began to say: "the beginning of the European Renaissance incoming streaming four kinds of great invention, the formation of the modern world, has play a major role in papermaking and printing, for Zongjiaogaige opened the first road, and the promotion of public education possible. the invention of gunpowder, in addition to cutting Fengjianzhidu, the creation of a national military system. invention of the compass, led to the discovery of America, which the entire world, rather than Europe as the stage of history. and four other inventions Chinese people and occupies an important position. this book is limited to the invention of printing, specializing in the facts of this invention. " the following year Chinese scholars have translated sections of the Carter book, saying "four great inventions" of the Chinese scholars began to be understood, and slowly spread and become fixed said.
Although the invention was first proposed by the four Westerners, but it has been controversial, and later found that the formulation is not rigorous, some effect overstated. Status of technical invention which has been low in China, it is impossible to make such generalizations. However, this does not affect the four great inventions of the Chinese people later content mining and deepened. If the Chinese people themselves named, estimated gunpowder and the compass are replaced silk and porcelain. Unfortunately, some people think that alternatives could not have discovered the New World and destroy Fengjianzhiduo divine, so even though in the East before the transfer of Western technology, the history of gunpowder in China mediocre efficacy, compass and even clear context are hard to find, but still without prejudice to the position four columns.
Four great inventions nothing to do with science, is purely technical invention, due to the different technical fields, not easy to do on the contribution of internal order. Generally to a technology through three stages: the prototype technology, mature technology, backward technology, mature technology is the only sign of success. Formation of mature technology has a strong Ziranhuanjing social or environmental constraints, extreme example is the Arctic Circle near impossible invention fridge, near the equator could not invent heating. Verify maturity of the technology, the key can be effectively applied in production, military, commercial and other fields. If one of the technologies in the military can rapidly improve combat, usually is the fastest propagation velocity.
After the horse is domesticated, speed, weight, endurance combination of the three best animals, agricultural civilizations important strategic resource. All horses can improve efficiency in the use of the invention, will be taken seriously. Mature technology stirrups about three centuries invented by the nomads in northern Asia during the five barbarians significant effect on. Chinese Han culture area gradually accepted, improve the military superiority of the Sui and Tang dynasties. Stirrups westward all the way until the 9th century, the Frankish people in Western Europe to master the technology. After the knights to sit immediately, make all kinds of fancy exaggerated movements. Stirrup technology is very simple, you can make the legs Yu cavalry horses, the complete liberation of hands, looks good but no harm, should be rapidly expanded, but the stirrups westward spread around but took nearly six centuries. The main factor delaying the spread of the ancient art of today is not the patent barriers, but the combination of tradition and there will be conflicts with other new technologies. Benefits stirrup no doubt, but the kind of domesticated horses, cavalry training, armament, military services setting, strategy and tactics, military manufacturing, military spending and so must be changed accordingly, a high short-term replacement costs, inevitably takes a long time spread.
Cite a more familiar example: 0-9, should be strictly referred to as "India - ." Digital systems have the invention in several areas the ancient civilization, but a different way of writing. originated in India and spread evolved several times, the early 9th century in the Arab region to differentiate into two things. Digital East Branch evolved now used by the Arabs, the west branch route through Spain, introduced to Europe in the 12th century to the 16th century are widely used and gradually replace Roman numerals, and improved substantially in line with the wording of today. India figures, East Branch and now , respectively, in the Tang Dynasty, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties have passed China's record. But the Chinese people are used to using the traditional operator to raise or Lunar count, which was unmoved. Late 19th century and early 20th century, considered formally introduced into China began large-scale use. It seems today that technological superiority Needless said, why the spread is not the same experience it? If you understand the relationship between and modern science, not difficult to understand the differences in life experience 0-9 different regions of.
Stirrup and control, look at the four great inventions of China. Previously have been mentioned briefly, here mainly to talk about printing.
Printing principle is very simple, carve patterns or text on a harder material brick, stone, wood, metal, etc., coated with ink, paper bulk copy. If you do not consider the seal of the earliest Chinese printing can be traced back to the Eastern Han Dynasty stone rubbings, can be considered the prototype technology. Mature Typography refers to the 6th century woodblock print occur. Birth woodblock printing technology was born of social factors that neither the emperor to the quotation, nor a scholar to poetry, but later Mahayana Buddhism is finished, the faithful surge in China, requires a lot of Buddhist scriptures. Scribe although sincere, but time consuming, income is too low. Similarly Buddhist content for a broad range of needs, someone from the stone rubbing inspiration, came into wood engraving, paper, ink also make corresponding technical improvements, the results of Buddhist avalanche flying into the homes of ordinary people, the temple merchants were Lee lucrative. Rapid spread of woodblock printing in East Asia, most of the early Buddhist scriptures printed for later printing almanac, cultural relics China and Japan are strong proof. Woodblock printing also changed the form of saving paper materials by volume becomes bound, only the later books. Tang emergence and woodblock printing does not matter, on the contrary as Buddhist, and caused too many believers, but chaos. In the late Tang Dynasty, Buddhism increasingly serious social erosion, accounting for property, to avoid taxes, to escape military service, in which the block printing waves. Of course, the decline of the Tang Dynasty woodblock printing can not be blamed, because the technology is not so much energy.
Yuan, Ming and Qing four dynasties woodblock printing technology is more mature, expand the scope of civil publishing industry flourished, intellectuals doubling as social prosperity help. Chinese ancient books voluminous, Ming and Qing four dynasties accounted for ninety nine, all of the power block printing. Song Yuan Dynasty, the Ming and Qing fiction is now highly respected, they are not the mainstream of the year. After widespread classics, note by interpretation everyone can, but unfortunately did not bring new philosophers, Neo took the opportunity to forming a monopoly position. But "Makoto positive Gezhi repair Qi Zhiping" dead set all reading people, ideas become more rigid. All this of course can not just blame the woodblock printing, mainly other social factors at work.
Block Printing in the East is a mature technology, but as it is very slow to the West and papermaking. Silk long impossible once completed, the Crusades, the Mongolian expedition will help to accelerate the speed of propagation. Islamic world to accept China papermaking, woodblock printing was not interested but then, only a few applications. Nominally considered printing religious books belonging to disrespectful behavior, has been obsessed with manual transcription, until about the 18th century was forced to accept the movable type printing. Europeans first appeared in front of the print is not Songyuan Shan, Central Asia, but a popular folk game cards. At the latest to the 14th century, woodblock printing spread to Europe and is mastered, similar to the East, in addition to printed cards, early printed content more graphic stories in the Bible. However, the text block printing system for Europe is not a mature technology, practicality is poor. The situation is pressing, some people began to try to wood type, further attempts to cast metal type. German Gutenberg after painstaking research to improve the cast of characters, picking words, Workgroup Edition, fill in the blank, neat rows, a number of printing technology, in about 1455 first printed publication of "The Bible." When the start of the movable type printing in Europe, the majority of religious content, the Holy See a large number of print indulgences enrichment. But people closer to God and distance after, but also promote Zongjiaogaige, typography new knowledge, new ideas spread Tim hand, the magnificent Renaissance climax. After hundreds of years of technological improvements, in 1790 to promote the use of letterpress printing. After the Industrial Revolution, printing machines become an expertise developed independently, but still follow the overall printing Gutenberg technical routine.
Movable type in the East as early as someone tries, Bi Sheng Shen Kuo been documented in deeds, "Meng Xi Bi Tan", the Ming and Qing dynasties have also been the practice, and retained some typography books. North Korea and China belong to a cultural district, the official beginning of the 15th century under funded and published a number of Confucian classics of metal movable type. But the East all movable type printing books and even drop in the bucket compared to woodblock printed books are not really other than to the presence of movable type, and can not prove that it is a mature technology, but the formation of evidence to the contrary, any instructions generated by a large movable type printing in China.
Today someone tries to copy mud type, wood type, hoping to prove the feasibility of ancient times, the effect is not good. Because material defects, mud type, wood type movable type can not be turned into a mature technology, or use of metal type. Chinese coins writing beautifully proves movable type in the East is not difficult to promote the manufacture of metal type of technical problems, but there are other reasons. Character is the pride of China, but due to the complicated strokes, a huge number, become movable type promotion stumbling block. Ancient carved Wenhuashuiping generally not high, in fact, is what you want to make engravings, not very clear text, so Cuoe lot. Movable type cast typesetting process required by the "word" cable Ji, in the Western context is very simple, dozens of letters can be infinitely replicated and used ordinary people to complete. But in the Chinese language environment, not only the workload cast of characters is hugely magnified, and pick typesetting seek a higher level of knowledge is high, so that Cuoe more. This is the ancient Chinese publishing industry can not afford the cost of doing business, so try a small amount in addition to civil and official financing, typography can not form commercial. Shen Kuo, Wang Zhen officials are describing typography how easy and convenient, dripping, are not clear how technology commercialization scholar's words, is the ancient Chinese art of understanding Zhishifenzai common problem. Business does not work, government demonstration also help. Qing Yongzheng, the court cast 250,000 copper type, print "Imperial ancient and modern books Integration", a total of rolls, one hundred and sixty million words, is China's first large-scale application of ancient typography, but in the process also feel inefficiency. Thereafter these copper type can only be shelved, the final fate of the Qianlong period is take it to mint coins.
Engraving and letterpress printing type, high wood or metal plate printing pictures costs, the effect is poor. Another German Senefelder (1771-1834) invented in 1798 lithography lithography, ink-stone and water according to the principle of incompatibility, you can easily produce a plate. But the West does not replace the lithography letterpress printing, but printing an assistive technology, but lithographed in China has led to a publishing revolution. Woodblock printing from the Tang to the Qing, continuous improvement process, as a mature technology, not subject to any challenge. Lithographic engravings lower costs than the font smaller and more casual, printed photo quality is quite good, the publishing industry accepted fast. From the late Qing Dynasty to the early Republic, almost overnight, after a thousand years of woodblock printing was eliminated. So far, woodblock printing as intangible cultural heritage remains, wood paintings, Buddhist scriptures are its historical continuity.
In the second half of Western influence, especially in the booming Chinese newspaper, make lithographs of the 20th century appeared to be inadequate, Printing gradual integration with the West. Increased sales of books and newspapers, the printing industry was finally able to afford the high cost of lead typography and began large-scale commercial. But in the next kanji movable type in the dilemma has been unable to solve, other things being equal, the unit cost is higher than typographical Western instruments, but also Chinese characters encounter rare temporary cast of characters, typesetting work intensity of workers high. Similar problems also arise when the characters encounter a computer, but the Chinese people can not give up Chinese characters, had to rely on technological innovation.
Early 20th century, photography was introduced in the printing industry, a revolution of the precursor. With the development of computer and laser technology, laser phototypesetting 1970 Western invention, begin the phase-out stereotype. A British company trying to develop Chinese character laser phototypesetting, and with a prototype to demonstrate China, hoping occupied Chinese market. But the technology, however, recognition speed is too low. Chinese technologists Wang Xuan (1937-2006) drawing on international advanced technology, research led the team to solve the problem Chinese character recognition, in 1985, invented the Chinese character laser typesetting system, direct international high-end, commercial and quickly. The next decade, China is gradually phased out stereotype. "Farewell to lead and fire, to usher in light and electricity." Kanji printing emancipation, a new life. But the story does not end there, as technology advances, the paperless era is approaching, information transmission of the printing press began to face the overall outcome to be eliminated.
Any widely great inventions in the history of literature or remains difficult to achieve but not dragon head and tail. Four great inventions breakdown down in the local performance vary widely. Paper and block printing is a mature technology, movable type printing stillborn. Black powder firecrackers production is a mature technology, although accidents have so far, and for only part of the artillery, smokeless powder after the invention of the European alternative. Compass is an integrated complex nautical art item, and Chinese water compass is not mature. Four great inventions, drop in the ocean, is the agricultural civilization of several ten million kinds of art, or even just a series of complex evolution of a ring. The origin of each of those inventions are important, prototype technology should be affirmed, but not worth showing off. Mature technology will be remembered, but here and now mature and do not necessarily represent the time and place also mature stage of effectiveness does not mean long-term efficacy. Once the new, more efficient technologies emerge, the former will become backward technology mature technology, will eventually be eliminated.
Technological inventions, humanity should be shared. Phoenician ship, Lydian gold and silver coins, ancient Greek wine, the Roman arch, nomadic stirrups, India - , there are just a few of China's many inventions. Technological advances always learn from each other, exchanges, staged shape, mature, out of the trilogy. Regardless of you and me, are all mankind, because most technologically advanced universal values.
Some people too deep into the drama, based on the concept of Western, Eastern, and for the later "son playing I" excuses, like water, compass and verify the New World, and direct contact Bi Sheng Gutenberg, alchemy and artillery between Europe and further direct export great voyages, Zongjiaogaige, Renaissance, and further direct export scientific revolution, the Enlightenment, the industrial civilization. Such super imaginary full of art, almost miraculous, newer research comes as a direct relationship Book and computers.
In the history of technology, each technology has a life cycle, an industry, a field of integrated technology as well. So treat history as an important figure in Zhongdashijian or as a single technology is not necessary to give effect unlimited extension, make excessive interpretation. Heavy historical complex process such woes, the individual can not carry all the technology, the rich variety of combinations of technology is the cornerstone of mankind's survival.
(Author: Ding Fuji Ark)
The entire contents of a user on Baidu know daily newspaper published a third party is strictly prohibited reproduced. Any third party to use the content, you must contact Baidu know daily zhidaoribao@baidu.com, obtain written authorization to use the content and in the manner prescribed.
Article Source: Baidu know daily (http://zhidao.baidu.com/daily)
Original link: http: //zhidao.baidu.com/daily/view id = 378?